What Is Linen?

How is linen made?

Linen is made by separating the long fibres from the stems of the flax plant, combing them parallel, spinning them into yarn and weaving the yarn into cloth. Flax has been cultivated for its fibres since before 5000 BCE, according to CAMEO at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Britannica notes evidence of flax in prehistoric lake dwellings in Switzerland and fine linen in the tombs of ancient Egypt.

The Alliance for European Flax-Linen & Hemp, a European industry body representing 16 countries, describes the stages like this:

1. Pulling. At maturity the flax stalks are pulled up and laid in rows (swaths) on the field.
2. Retting. Dew, rain, sun and soil microorganisms break down the natural glue that holds the fibres to the woody core.
3. Scutching. The dried straw is crushed and beaten to separate long fibres, short fibres, woody fragments (shives) and seeds.
4. Hackling. The long fibres are combed parallel into soft, glossy ribbons called flax sliver. The short fibres left behind are called hackled tow.
5. Spinning. In wet spinning the fibres are immersed in water heated to 60 °C, which helps them glide; it gives the fine yarns used for clothing and household linen. Hackled tow goes to dry spinning, which makes thicker, more rustic yarn.

What are the properties of linen?

Linen is strong, absorbent, quick-drying and cool to wear, but it creases easily.

• Strength. Britannica describes linen as stronger than cotton. CAMEO attributes this to the fibre's thicker cell walls. Its durability is one reason linen has long been preferred as a canvas for easel painting.
• Moisture. Flax has a moisture regain of 12% (CAMEO). Britannica says linen absorbs and releases moisture quickly and dries faster than cotton.
• Coolness. Linen conducts heat well, which is why it feels cool against the skin (Britannica).
• Creasing. The fibre stretches only 1.8% dry and 2.2% wet before breaking (CAMEO). Britannica links this low elasticity to linen's hard, smooth texture and its tendency to wrinkle.

Fine grades are woven into fabrics and lace for clothing and household furnishings (Britannica).

How is linen graded?

Two quality markers the sources describe are whether the yarn was spun from long fibre or short tow, and how fine that yarn is.

• Long fibre versus tow. Per the Alliance's glossary, wet spinning makes fine yarns for clothing and household linen, while hackled tow goes to dry spinning for thicker yarns used in furniture and ropemaking.
• Fibre size. Sources give different figures. CAMEO puts individual flax fibres at 6–65 mm long and 8–32 microns wide. The Alliance gives 6–10 cm long and 7–40 microns wide, and notes that the "technical fibre" handled in spinning is a bundle of 10 to 40 of these cells.
• Traceability marks. The Alliance runs two certifications. European Flax covers fibre grown in Western Europe through integrated crop management, without irrigation (barring exceptional circumstances) or GMOs. Masters of Linen covers linen made by European companies on European and Euro-Mediterranean sites, from fibre to yarn and fabric. Masters of Linen is a traceability guarantee and European Flax certifies where and how the fibre is grown; neither measures fineness.

How does linen appear on a clothing label?

In the EU the name is reserved for fibre from the flax plant, and in the US “linen” is one of the generic fibre names used on content labels.

In the EU

• Regulation (EU) No 1007/2011 lists the fibre as "flax (or linen)", defined as fibre from the bast of Linum usitatissimum.
• Annex I names may not be used for other fibres, "whether on their own or as a root or as an adjective" (Article 5). A bamboo fabric therefore cannot be sold in the EU as "bamboo linen".
• "100%", "pure" or "all" is reserved for single-fibre products. Up to 2% of technically unavoidable extraneous fibre is tolerated (5% for carded products).
• Blends list the name and percentage by weight of each fibre in descending order, although fibres of up to 5% each (15% together) that are hard to state at manufacture may be grouped as "other fibres" (Article 9).
• Fabric with a pure cotton warp and pure flax weft may be called "cotton linen union" only if flax is at least 40% of the unsized fabric's weight, and the label must add "pure cotton warp – pure flax (or linen) weft".

In the US

• Under 16 CFR 303.6, fibres making up 5% or more of the weight must be named by their generic names; "linen" is one of the examples given.
• A fibre such as cotton or nylon present at under 5% is listed as "other fiber" unless it has a clearly established functional purpose, such as spandex for stretch (303.3). Wool and recycled wool are a further exception: their name and percentage must always be stated, even below 5% (16 CFR 300.3(b); FTC).
• The label must also give the country of origin and the name or registered identification number (RN) of the manufacturer or of a business that markets or handles the garment (303.16).
• Stated percentages may vary by up to 3 percentage points, but that tolerance does not apply when a garment is labelled as wholly one fibre, such as "100% linen" or "All linen" (303.43 and 303.27).

How is linen different from hemp, ramie and jute?

Linen comes from a different plant from the other common bast fibres, and EU law gives each its own name.

Annex I defines each as bast fibre from a different plant, so the label, not the texture, tells you whether cloth is linen, hemp or, as with burlap or hessian, something else.

How do you tell good linen from poor linen?

Read the fibre line first, then look at the yarn, scrunch the cloth and check the colour.

1. Read the percentages. Look for "100% linen" or, in the EU, "flax" or "linen" with a figure. Both the EU and the US require fibre percentages, so "linen blend" alone is incomplete.
2. Look at the yarn. Hold the cloth to the light. Fine, even yarns match the wet-spun yarns the Alliance describes for clothing; a thick, rustic yarn is closer to its description of dry-spun tow.
3. Scrunch a corner. Squeeze it in your fist for a few seconds. Linen should crease, because the fibre barely stretches. If cloth sold as linen springs back completely, re-read the label for a blend.
4. Check undyed shades. Natural flax fibre is yellowish to grey (CAMEO), so "natural" or "undyed" linen should sit in that range.

"Washed linen" is not a fibre grade. The Alliance defines it as linen given an aged effect by processes that soften the touch.

How do you care for linen?

Follow the garment's care label, expect creases, and store linen clean, dry and unstarched.

• Chemicals and stains. Flax resists alkalis, dilute acids and most organic solvents but is degraded by strong acids (CAMEO).
• Drying. Linen dries faster than cotton (Britannica). Avoid leaving it in strong sun for long periods: CAMEO notes it still degrades slowly in sunlight.
• Ironing. Creasing is a property of the fibre, not a fault. Use the iron setting on the care label, and don't leave a hot iron resting on the cloth: CAMEO notes that flax slowly degrades at temperatures above 120 °C.
• Storage. Store linen without starch. Flax resists mildew and insects, but silverfish eat starched flax.

Is linen sustainable?

Flax grown under European certification comes with documented farming conditions, but the fibre alone does not make a garment sustainable.

• Farming. According to the Alliance, European Flax-certified fibre is grown without irrigation (barring exceptional circumstances) and without GMOs, and retting relies on dew, rain and soil microorganisms in the field.
• Whole-plant use. The Alliance says 100% of the flax plant is used, with derivative products including linseed oil and paper pulp.
• Where it grows. The Alliance reports that in 2023 Europe had 150,000 hectares of flax, producing 140,000 tonnes of long fibre, and that, on its figures, France, Belgium and the Netherlands produce three-quarters of the world's long fibre.

These industry figures cover the field and fibre stage, not how a particular cloth was dyed, finished or sewn.